The ocean, which supplies humankind with fundamental ecosystem services, from fishing to climate regulation, is increasingly central to international debates. The year 2025 has witnessed mixed results: on the one hand, important steps forward, such as the entry into force of the Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies and the ratification by more than sixty countries of the High Seas Treaty; on the other hand, significant setbacks, notably due to the stance of some states. Among them, the United States held up the adoption of the Net-Zero Framework for reducing emissions in the maritime transport sector, while the Global Plastics Treaty failed to reach agreement.

The Third United Nations Ocean Conference

Among the events that have shaped the year nearing its conclusion is undoubtedly the UN Ocean Conference (UNOC), held last June in Nice, France. An appointment aimed at strengthening the implementation of UN Sustainable Development Goal 14, “Life Below Water”, devoted to the protection and sustainable exploitation of the ocean, seas and marine resources. In spite of some progress, many commentators found the conference disappointing overall, and confirmed that there is still a long way to go. Some positive actions were taken in Nice, such as the creation and expansion of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs); steps towards ratification of the High Seas Treaty; new investments; and renewed calls to stop deep-sea mining.

The final document of the third UNOC, the Nice Ocean Action Plan, includes a political declaration entitled Our ocean, our future: united for urgent action and over 800 voluntary commitments. Yet for many, these commitments are not enough. As Tom Pickerell, Global Director of the World Resources Institute's Ocean Program, noted, “There's real momentum coming out of Nice – but also a lot of unfinished business. This was a critical moment to close gaps in ocean protection. While some progress was made, not all governments fully seized it.”

The issue of economic resources is particularly critical, not least because Goal 14 sets out a whole series of complex objectives such as reducing pollution and ocean acidification, protecting and restoring marine ecosystems, promoting sustainable fishing, eliminating subsidies that fuel overfishing, and strengthening scientific research to improve the health of the seas. All of these goals will require large investments in the coming years if they are to be achieved.

“We can't save the ocean on spare change,” Pickerell pointed out. “Blue finance is finally gaining attention, but we're still $550 billion a year short of what's needed for long-term ocean health.” Without urgent investment, there is a risk accelerating the collapse of marine biodiversity, undermining food security for billions and weakening one of our most powerful buffers against climate change.

The ocean at COP30

The COP30, held in Belém, has also given more emphasis to ocean issues. In addition to the events held alongside the negotiations, in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) submitted by countries, mentions of the ocean quadrupled compared to a decade ago, with coastal and island countries paying more attention to these issues. Conservation and protection of marine ecosystems are among the most frequently cited initiatives. Nevertheless, the most effective action to reduce the impact of the climate crisis on the ocean continues to be the abandonment of fossil fuels, an objective that was not achieved in Belém, where no consensus was found on a shared roadmap for the exit from fossil fuels.

Also at COP30, Brazil, where 19% of GDP comes from activities directly or indirectly related to the ocean, became the 19th country to join the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy. “The Ocean Panel represents a diversified range of countries, but our ambition remains the same: the ocean must be at the centre of our collective future,” said Surangel S. Whipps Jr, Palau President and Co-Chair of the Ocean Panel. “Brazil chairs a vast ocean area and by committing to 100% sustainable management, it strengthens not only its own future, but that of all ocean-dependent nations.”

The High Seas Treaty

When looking at the ocean as a whole, more than two-thirds of its surface area falls within the so-called high seas: an area of outstanding biological richness and fundamental ecological importance. It is precisely the international waters, however, that have long suffered from fragmented governance, insufficient coordination and a lack of clear rules: all factors that have encouraged over-exploitation of resources and made these ecosystems vulnerable to pollution.

As mentioned earlier, one of the major achievements of the third UN Ocean Conference was the filing of ratifications of the High Seas Treaty by an additional 19 countries. A significant step, but still insufficient to allow it to enter into force. The breakthrough came a few months later: in September, the threshold of 60 ratifications was reached, which will make the Treaty internationally binding from 17 January 2026.

Fruit of more than two decades of debate, the agreement aims to provide a clear legal framework to establish networks of marine protected areas in international waters, contributing to the global goal of protecting at least 30% of the oceans by 2030. It also envisages a strengthened transparency and role for the international community in decisions on activities potentially harmful to marine biodiversity in the high seas, seeks to ensure equitable benefit-sharing from marine genetic resources, and promotes capacity-building and technology transfer, supported by a specific funding mechanism.

“Achieving 60 ratifications is not the finish line–it’s just the starting block,” stated Rebecca Hubbard, Director of the High Seas Alliance. “The Treaty’s true strength lies in universal participation. While we must celebrate this incredible progress, we urge all remaining nations to join this historic Agreement and help us go from 60 to global ahead of the first CoP.”

As of December, the number of states that have ratified the treaty has risen to 80. However, more than sixty countries are still unaccounted for, including Italy, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and, above all, the United States, whose ratification appears highly unlikely in light of the Trump administration's stance.

The Global Plastic Treaty

If we move from the high seas to plastics, results are much less encouraging. In August, in Geneva, the fifth session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Global Plastic Treaty (INC-5.2) ended with no agreement reached and no significant progress, deferring the continuation to a date and place yet to be determined.

The negotiations revealed deep divisions: the High Ambition Coalition is pushing for a binding treaty regulating the entire life cycle of plastics, while the Like-Minded Group, led by Saudi Arabia, would like a voluntary agreement limited to waste management. Other countries, such as Brazil, hold less defined positions, while the United States has openly opposed the introduction of production limits.

Maritime Emissions

Last spring, the Marine Environment Protection Committee of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), the global industry regulator, approved the Net-Zero Framework (NZF), intended to guide the industry towards net-zero emissions by 2050 through both technical and economic measures. Among these is a global fuel standard setting annual greenhouse gas emission reduction targets until 2035, with penalties for those who fail to meet them. The framework also includes a credit trading system, allowing the most environmentally virtuous ships to sell their credits to the most polluting ones, thus incentivising a transition to more sustainable shipping.

The adoption of the plan, originally scheduled for last October, was, however, blocked by the US, with the support of other countries, including Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Before the vote, US President Donald Trump had commented on his Truth Social: “I am outraged that the International Maritime Organisation is voting in London this week to pass a global Carbon Tax. The United States will NOT stand for this Global Green New Scam Tax on Shipping”.

The outcome was the postponement of the vote on the adoption of the NZF until next year, with 57 votes against and 49 in favour. The uncertainty arising from this, now widespread in several economic sectors (just think of the uncertainty of duties for much of the year), unavoidably holds back investment and business planning. As Thomas A. Kazakos, Secretary General of the International Chamber of Shipping, pointed out: “Industry needs clarity to be able to make the investments needed to decarbonise the maritime sector, in line with the goals set out in the IMO GHG strategy”.

Stop subsidies for overfishing

It has taken nearly two decades of negotiations to regulate subsidies that harm fish stocks. After its adoption in 2022, the Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies became effective last September, safeguarding not only marine species but also the communities that depend on the ocean for livelihoods, jobs and income. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) celebrated this milestone, emphasising how the agreement commits member countries to reduce annual spending on the most harmful subsidies to fish stocks by billions of dollars.

In an increasingly fragmented geopolitical context, where multilateralism appears to be weakened, the Director-General of the WTO, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, said: “At a time when the international trading system faces profound challenges, the Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies sends a powerful signal that WTO members can work together in a spirit of cooperation and shared responsibility to deliver solutions to global challenges. The entry into force of this Agreement stands as a reminder that many of the biggest challenges we face are more effectively addressed at the multilateral level. People and nations need a multilateralism that delivers – which is why today is so reassuring”.

In particular, the agreement prohibits subsidies for illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing; fishing for overexploited stocks (with some exceptions); and fishing on the high seas supported by government funds. According to the FAO report “Review of the State of World Marine Fisheries Resources”, by 2021, 35% of fish stocks were subject to overfishing, with a growth of about one percentage point per year in recent years.

Cover: Envato image